NEOPLATONISM AND THE TAROT
The thesis presented in this essay is that the philosophical and mystical system underlying the Tarot symbols (i.e., Fool + Trumps) is Neoplatonic. The connections between the Tarot and Neoplatonism were pointed out in my earlier book (O'Neill 1986) but subsequent research has uncovered a wealth of additional evidence that should be of interest to anyone interested in Tarot symbolism.
Neoplatonism and its early development
Neoplatonism is a term coined in the mid-nineteenth century (Harris 1972) to describe late Greek/Alexandrian philosophy (Merlan 1960). Plotinus (~204-270) is usually identified as the chief innovator (Inge 1929). The name Neoplatonism is misleading since it is not a revival of Plato but rather a synthesis and culmination of Greek thought including Aristotle (Merlan 1975). Indeed, modern scholars acknowledge that Plotinus is no closer to Plato than he is to Aristotle (Anton 2000) and have suggested that Neoaristoteleanism might be a better title (Harris 1972).
The basic ontological challenge for Plotinus, as for earlier Greek philosophers, was to explain the connection between an infinite, immaterial, and unchanging Source or God with a finite, material, and changing world. Plotinus' solution was a series of intermediate steps or emanations that were immaterial but mutable. These intermediaries bridged the gap between the immaterial and the material in a series of gradual steps. The concept of emanations had been developed by the Stoics but only for material phenomena such as light radiation (Harris 1972). Plotinus elevated the analogy with light to a basic ontological principle. As we will see, this simple explanation became the philosophical basis for much of Mediterranean spirituality, western science and art, and even magic.
Plotinus was an Egyptian and so was his teacher, Ammonius Saccas (185-250). Plotinus studied in Alexandria for 11 years and was a participant in the Alexandrian synthesis of ideas (O'Neill 1986). So there is a real basis for the occultist belief that the Tarot originated in Egypt. However, it was not the Egypt of the pharaohs and pyramids but the late Alexandrian synthesis that was the true basis.
Buddhist and Bramin thinkers were in Alexandria at the time and it should come as no surprise that there are many oriental concepts in Neoplatonism (Gregorios 2002). This synthesis provides a simple explanation for why later Tarot interpretors were misled into thinking there was a direct oriental input into the Tarot. The oriental input was indirect through Neoplatonism.
Alexandria was also a center for Gnostic thinkers (Wallis and Bregman 1992). So it is no surprise that later interpretors detected Gnostic elements in the Tarot symbols. But once again the influence was indirect (see article on Catharism and the Tarot). While some Gnostic elements were incorporated into Plotinus' system, he argued strenuously against the mythology and dualism of the Gnostics (Turner and Majercik 2000). In Plotinus' thought, evil is a simple absence of good and not a creative force as it is in Gnosticism. Fundamentally, Neoplatonism is not a Gnostic system. Rather, it is an Alexandrian/Greek system that was influenced by Gnosticism and it is this symbolic system that we find in the Tarot.
Alexandria was also a center for Jewish scholars. For example, we later find Philo arguing for the compatibility of Judaism with Greek philosophy (Smalley 1964). Scholem (1974, 1987) documents the roots of QBLH in Neoplatonism (also see Goodman 1992). We will deal in more detail with the occultist interpretation of Tarot as a system of QBLH in a separate article. For now it suffices to say that the system of sephiroth and indeed the Sefer Yetsirah are Neoplatonic and that the 16th century Christian Cabalists that the occultists relied upon for their interpretations were themselves Neoplatonists (Kristeller 1964).
It was a disciple of Plotinus, Porphyry (c. 232-304), who wrote his biography and organized his written works (Smith 1974). The chief work, the Enneads, was only translated from Greek in 1492 by Marsilio Ficino. So Plotinus' own work was not available in Italy as the Tarot evolved between ~1410 and 1450. We will have to trace the influence of Neoplatonism through a number of later writers.
The most influential conveyors of Neoplatonism were Iamblicus (c. 245-326) and Proclus (d. 450). They accepted Neoplatonism as the culmination of Greek philosophy and drew out the logical consequences of Plotinus' philosophy for religion, magic, and symbolism (Lachs 2002).
Plotinus had identified the transcendent "Good" of Plato with the Pythagorean "One" (Harris 1972). Iamblicus and Proclus (Dodds 1963) expanded this insight by assimilating Neopythagoreanism into Neoplatonism. Following Posidonius (Merlan 1975), they adopted mathematicals as intermediates between God and created matter. The logic is simple: God is immaterial and indivisible, matter is material and divisible. The logical intermediary is mathematicals which are immaterial and divisible. Thus intermediaries such as the World Soul, angels, and even the human soul were equated with mathematicals and numbers acquired a cosmic and mystical status. Thus, insofar as Pythagorean number mysticism and symbolism entered into the Tarot, it was a thread in a wholecloth called Neoplatonism.
Plotinus was a mystic and describes out-of-the-body experiences in Enneads IV. His philosophical system of emanations or intermediaries describes not only the steps in the creative descent but also the logical steps for a mystical ascent back to the One (Merlan 1975). The mystical implication was developed by Iamblicus and Proclus but also by other authors in Athens (Hierocles, Damascius, Simplicius, Priscianus), in Alexandria (Hermeias and Olympiodus), and in Rome (Macrobius and Servius) (Culiano 1991). The Pistis Sophia also discusses the return journey. Indeed, many other-world journeys (discussed in a separate article) were probably influenced by Neoplatonism (Culiano 1991).
Founded on this mystical background, Iamblicus and Proclus also added a theurgic or ritual element to the mix (Smith 1995). Plotinus' mysticism was designed for the philosopher. His method was to concentrate on each of the intermediate steps and deny the properties of that intermediary. In this way, the mystic eventually stripped the ultimate concept of the One of all multiplicity and imperfection. Plotinus hints that the ultimate union with the One requires more than this negative dialectic, it requires an act of love (Anton 2000). Later Neoplatonists felt Plotinus' method was too restricted to philosophers and that his hint about love opened the path to a more universal religious system in which ritual, magic, and initiation permitted access to the non-philosopher. Therefore, influenced by the Mystery Religions and probably also by Gnosticism (Merlan 1975), Neoplatonism became a religious and magical system (Webb 1974). Neoplatonism adopted initiations, rituals, spells, and passwords to be used during the ascent (Betts 1986). There was a mystical connection between a name and the thing it represents (Gombrich 1972, Ormsby-Lennon 1995). In the end, mysticism, initiation, and magical ritual became integral parts of the system that was transmitted to later scholars.
In many ways, Neoplatonism was a convenient philosophical basis for western magic. Though Neoplatonism isn't the point of origin of magic nor a necessary component, it was often adopted as a logical philosophical base. The world we experience is simply the physical manifestation of a spiritual and immaterial world that lies beyond matter (Harris 1972). What is most real and most powerful is utterly removed from matter (Alexandrakis 2002). The explanation of physical phenomena must involve the participation and involvement of higher levels in the chain of being (Anton 2000). The material world is based on an archetype of the ideal world of Plotinian emanations. By magical access to levels of that ideal world (e.g., angels and demons, astral and planetary correspondences) one can gain power over physical phenomena.
The Influence of Neoplatonism on the Eastern Christian Church
Neoplatonism was very influential in the late ancient world and influenced philosophy in many different spiritual traditions (Vanderjast and Patzold 1991). Perhaps the strongest influence was on the Eastern Christian Church. When the Athenian Neoplatonic school was closed in 529, it moved to Byzantium (later called Constantinople) where it became a dominant philosophy in eastern Christianity (Harris 1972). Neoplatonism also influenced the eastern church through Origen of Alexandria, Basil, and Gregory of Nyssa. Neoplatonism became codified into Christianity by Maximus the Confessor and John of Damascus (Rorem 1993). By the time of Photius (820-891), Neoplatonism had been deeply engrained into the eastern church (Anton 2000).
Eastern mysticism was also influenced by Pseudo-Dionysius (Lossky 1957). Basilides is probably the originator of the theory that the individual soul emulates the Plotinian act of creation by traveling down through the 7 cosmic spheres (Culiano 1991). In the monastic mysticism of the east, Neoplatonism provided the underlying philosophy.
The reason that eastern Neoplatonism is of interest to us is that Harris (1972) shows that Psellus (1018-1079) relied heavily on Proclus and, in turn strongly influenced Pletho (c. 1360- c. 1450). Pletho was one of the Greeks that traveled to Italy in the 15th century for the councils that attempted to reunite the eastern and roman churches. Pletho provided access to Greek philosophy that Italy had only known through the Latin writers and stimulated a new interest that stimulated the 15th century Italian Neoplatonists.
Though Pletho and other Byzantines at the council are often credited with introducing the Italians to Neoplatonism, we will show below that they simply stimulated a tradition that was already deeply engrained in Roman Christianity. Pletho later formed a Neoplatonic community in Greece (Webb 1974) that espoused an individualistic religion uniting Neoplatonism, Christian mysticism, Sufism, and the Chaldean Oracles (Godwin 2002).
The Influence of Neoplatonism on Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism
Islam was also strongly influenced by Neoplatonism and by the works of the late Hellenistic philosophers to which they had more immediate access than the Latin West (Affifi 1939). Of particular importance was Al-Farabi (870-950) and his disciples Al-Razi (d. 925) and Ibn Sina (d. 1037) who was known in the west as Avicenna.
Al-Farabi wrote extensively on the Plotinian emanations and their relationship to the hierarchical cosmology of Ptolemy (Fakhry 2002). Avicenna combined the Neoplatonic cosmology with the developing 'science' of astrology (Robb 1935). So when the Arabic manuscripts began to be translated into Latin in the 12th century, the west found cosmology and mathematics tightly bound in a Neoplatonic package. With the new 'science' came a mystical philosophy (Morewedge 1992) and the package was assimilated along with the contents.
The emanation theories of Al-Farabi were strongly opposed by Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) and largely died out in the eastern Mediterranean. Later Islamic philosophers such as Ibn Rushd (d. 1198), known in the west as Averroes, opposed Al-Farabi on many points but elsewhere defended him against Al-Ghazali's attack (Fakhry 2002). But it is also clear that Islamic Neoplatonism continued to flourish in Islamic Spain. At this point in the discussion, it should come as no surprise that Neoplatonism became the philosophical underpinnings of Sufism (Fakhry 2002). Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi (d. 1191) reconciled Neoplatonism with Islamic mysticism through the hierarchy of lights (Fakhry 2002). Modern Tarot interpretors who see a common thread with Sufism are, once again, both correct and seeing only a single aspect of the wholecloth of Neoplatonism.
The Influence of Neoplatonism on Early Christian Fathers
We have seen that Neoplatonism was infused into west thought with the translation of the Arabic philosophers in the 12th century and again with the arrival of the Byzantine embassaries in 15th century Italy. But it is also important to realize Neoplatonism was also deeply engrained into western philosophy, theology, and mysticism from the earliest times. Thus, these external infusions served as stimuli for an already existing Neoplatonism.
To understand how Neoplatonism became incorporated into western Christianity, it is necessary to understand how the medieval theologians used their authorities. The primary authority was, of course, the Scriptures. Second only to the Scriptures were the writings of the early Christian Fathers. These early writers were seen as being closer to the time of Jesus and largely preserved from error in order that God might set Christianity on a safe track.
We have already seen that many of the Eastern Fathers of the Church, such as Basil and Gregory of Nyssa, were Neoplatonists. And we will find the same thing to be true of Western Fathers such as Origen (c. 185-254, Lawson 1957) and Clement of Alexandria (Lilla 1971). John Cassian introduced the west to the Neoplatonic mysticism of the Egyptian Desert Fathers. But the Fathers most responsible for the orthodox elements of Neoplatonism in Roman Christianity are Saint Augustine (354-430) and Pseudo-Dionysius (O'Meara 1982).
Augustine was a convert who was greatly influenced by Marius Victorinus (born c. 280), a Roman Neoplatonist and Christian. Augustine's major works (Bourke 1958, Ryan 1960) were widely available and cited by essentially all of the orthodox Christian theologians. Augustine's interpretation of Scriptures included the idea that there was both a literal and a deeper mystical sense (Smalley 1964). This concept of multiple level of meaning in scriptural exegesis and, by extention, all symbolic systems was taken from Origen. Augustine's writings are deeply personal and mystical (Robb 1935). Mysticism is seen in a Neoplatonic light as an individualistic and inward experience and journey upward. With Augustine, Neoplatonism takes on Christian garb and most of its pagan connotations are Christianized or discarded.
Pseudo-Dionysius is the title given to an anonymous Christian Neoplatonic writer. His works were widely available (Rolt 1940, Luibheid 1987) and extremely influential (Knowles 1975, McGinn 1991) throughout the later Medieval period. He was believed to be the Dionysius who is mentioned as a convert in the Acts of the Apostles. Therefore, most theologians regarded his writings as being of apostolic age and he was considered a reliable eyewitness to early Christian thought. As such, he was considered as a Father of the Church and an impeccable authority (Rorem 1993).
Pseudo-Dionysius became the ultimate orthodox authority on angelology through his work on the Celestial Hierarchy. He invented the word hierarchy (Rorem 1993) and used this concept to array nine choirs of angels from lowest to highest, paralleling the Neoplatonic intermediaries. With Pseudo-Dionysius, the Neoplatonic-Ptolemaic cosmology became something akin to Christian dogma and was accepted throughout the medieval period.
Pseudo-Dionysius also provided the theological basis for much of western mysticism (Louth 1981). He introduced the term 'cloud of unknowing' to describe a Plotinian negative theology in which contemplation of God involves the successive denial of attributes until the One is stripped of all descriptors (Rorem 1993). Later Christian mystics relied extensively on this Neoplatonic concept to describe their experiences.
By dressing the theurgy of Iamblicus and Proclus in orthodox Christian garb, Pseudo-Dionysius also provided a theological foundation for much of the natural science and magic of medieval Europe. Basically, the idea is that sensible nature is derived from and closely correlated with the immaterial (Alexandrakis 2002). This is the core idea behind the influence of the celestial spheres on human life (astrology and astrological image magic), the occult virtues of natural objects (gems, herbs, etc.), and the theory of correspondences in which objects have a natural correlation with various planets. In many respects an understanding of Pseudo-Dionyius and his influence on orthodox theology is the only hope for the modern reader trying to decipher the Church's reaction to magic. Summoning and compelling demons was never acceptable. But explaining plagues by astral conjunctions and comets or administering medicines during the proper phase of the moon was usually approved as a proper application of human reason to an orthodox Neoplatonic cosmology.
Neoplatonic Christian Philosophers and Theologians
Since Origen and Clement, and especially Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius, were accepted as Church Fathers, Neoplatonism became an integral part of Roman Christianity (Klibansky 1937). While the complexity of the Neoplatonic system played only a background role in many writers, it became a dominant theme is a succession of philosophers and theologians who kept the Neoplatonic synthesis alive in western thought (Markus and Blumenthal 1981).
It is beyond the scope of this essay to trace each Neoplatonic concept through every writer between the 5th and the 15th century. We are only interested in establishing that many Neoplatonic ideas were incorporated into western thinking and available at the time the Tarot was designed. To establish this lineage it suffices to hit on some of the high points and deal with the most influential authors.
The scholarship of McGinn (1995) permits us to follow the trail of one concept that is of interest to Tarot studies. The World Soul or Anima Mundi is a concept that originated with Plato in the "Timaeus". This dialogue was available in the west through a 4th century translation by Chalcidius. The Greek Neoplatonists made the World Soul an important emanation of God, the immediate creator of the material universe - the lowest aspect of God and the one that makes immediate contact with the mathematical intermediaries. The World Soul is referred to as female and 12th century illustrations are of a woman. Therefore, this Neoplatonic concept is probably the model for the World card in the Tarot de Marseille.
The Anima Mundi appears in a number of classical Latin authors, such as Cicero, Seneca, Virgil, Macrobius, and Apuleius (Haskins 1927). Since these authors were so influential in 15th century humanism, it is important to realize that they were immersed in late Hellenistic philosophy, i.e., Neoplatonism. The early momentum built up around the concept of the Anima Mundi continued and the idea appears in Boethius, the Asclepius (attributed to Hermes Trismagistus), Augustine, Eriugena, Anselm (Deane 1962). The Neoplatonist Peter Abelard (Luscombe 1970) and Meister Eckhart identified the Anima Mundi with the Holy Spirit. With the translation of two additional Platonic dialogues (Phaedo and Meno) by Aristippus of Catania ~1156 (Haskins 1927) there was an increased interest in the concept which appears in Bernard and Thierry of Chartres, William of Conches (Thorndike 1923), Bernardus Silvestris, Gilbert de la Porree, Abelard of Bath, Hermann of Carinthia (Haskins 1927), Arnold of Bonneval (late 1150's) and Hildegard of Bingen (Thorndike 1923). The 12th century renewal of Neoplatonism is also found in Alan of Lille (Wilks 1977, Evans 1983, Otten 1992). By the 13th century, the World Soul, a fundamental Neoplatonic concept, became a standard item in the vocabulary of orthodox Christian philosophers, theologians and mystics.
In addition to this rapid-fire survey of the World Soul concept, we also need to focus briefly on two sources that were influential in transmitting Neoplatonism to the scholastics and the 15th century. The first is Eriugena (c. 829 - 870) (McGinn and Otten 1994). Eriugena knew Greek well and provided translations of Pseudo-Dionysius (Harris 1972). His encyclopedic system was an explicitly Neoplatonic system and was based on the emanations and the mystic return to God (Westra 1992). He was apparently the first to use the term supernatural (Rorem 1993) to describe the intermediaries. Many of Eriugena's ideas were radical and he was posthumously declared a heretic in 1225 and again in 1585 (Harris 1972). If you wonder why it was felt necessary to condemn some of his radical ideas a second time, it was because the first declaration was largely ignored and Eriugena continued to influence philosophers, theologians and mystics through the 15th century. He had a particularly important influence on the 15th century Neoplatonist, Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), who we will discuss below.
The second influential source of transmittal was the Abbey of St. Victor (Harris 1972). Hugh of St. Victor (1096-1141) was an Augustinian scholar and mystic. He wrote a commentary on Pseudo-Dionysius' "Celestial Hierarchy" and reinforced the Neoplatonic themes of hierarchy, the spiritual function of symbols, and the negative approach to mysticism (Rorem 1993). Richard of St. Victor (d. 1173) continued the assimilation of the Pseudo-Dionysian themes into an orthodox philosophy and theology. Thomas Gallus (d. 1246) moved from St. Victor to found an abbey in northern Italy. He continued the Neoplatonic tradition and helped put together the Pseudo-Dionysian corpus that was relied upon over the next centuries. The corpus included the translations by Eriugena and by Sarracenus (~1167), commentaries by Eriugena and Hugh, together with a paraphrase of Pseudo-Dionysius by Gallus (Rorem 1993).
One reason for emphasizing the Victorine Neoplatonists is that St. Victor is located in Marseilles. One can expect, therefore, that the Neoplatonic symbolism at St. Victor foreshadowed the Neoplatonic symbolism of the Tarot. There is no reason to think that the Tarot was invented in Marseilles, but it easy to see why the symbols were espoused when they were brought there from Italy at the end of the 15th century. The Neoplatonism that Thomas Gallus took to Italy two centuries earlier had returned and Marseilles became a center of production for the French Tarot.
To summarize the influence of Neoplatonism on medieval thought, it is clear that many elements of late Alexandrian/Athenian philosophy were assimilated into western thought. Not every thinker emphasized these ideas and most were only remotely aware of their true origins. The Christian writers relied on Augustine, Pseudo-Dionysius, and the early Church Fathers, not on Plotinus. Humanists read Cicero, Virgil, and Boethius without recognizing that these authors were heavily imbued with Neoplatonism. Many of the occult and theurgic concepts of Iamblicus and Proclus were Christianized by Augustine. The hierarchical cosmology, the mystical ascent, the World Soul, and even some aspects of natural magic and astrology became part and parcel of the western Christian worldview. And it is that worldview that is encapsulated in the Tarot.
Neoplatonism in Thomas Aquinas
One of the most interesting aspects of Neoplatonism in western thought was its influence on the greatest scholastic theologian, St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Aquinas is usually presented as a purely Aristotelean theologian but he was strongly influenced by Neoplatonism (Schmitt 1982). Albertus Magnus, the teacher of Aquinas, got him interested in Proclus' "Liber de Causis" which, at that time, was thought to be written by Aristotle. Albertus also introduced Thomas to the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius whose apostolic authority was unquestioned. Aquinas wrote a commentary on Pseudo-Dionysius' Divine Names which describes the creation descent and mystical reascension. The influence of Pseudo-Dionysius on Thomas has long been recognized (Henle 1956, Hankey 1987, Elders 1990). Thomas cites Pseudo-Dionysius more than 1700 times (Rorem 1993).
McInerny (1990) establishes that Aquinas was also influenced by another Neoplatonic writer, Boethius (c. 480-524), whose "Consolations of Philosophy" formed one of the foundations of 14th and 15th century Italian humanism. Thomas also relies heavily on Augustine in his discussions of the Pauline out-of-the-body experience (2 Corinthians 12:1-6). Thomas' discussion helped establish the orthodoxy of mystical experiences which formed the core of western Christian mysticism (Harris 1972).
One of the reasons that Aquinas has often been classified as purely Aristotelean is his dependence on the Arabic commentators of Aristotle whose works were translated in the previous century. However, as we have seen above, these commentaries were heavily laced with Neoplatonism (Fakhry 2002). Avicenna was clearly a Neoplatonist and even Averroes defended many of the Neoplatonic theses. Indeed, due to a clerical error, several of the books of Plotinus' "Enneads" had been translated under the title "The Theology of Aristotle" and were believed to be written by Aristotle (Fakhry 2002). So even though Aquinas and the later scholastics thought of themselves as Aristoteleans, their reliance on Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius, the Islamic Neoplatonists, and works of Proclus and Plotinus that were attributed to Aristotle, meant that many Neoplatonic concepts became further imbedded into orthodox theology.
The Influence of Neoplatonism on Western Christian Mysticism
Christianity incorporated an orthodox mystical spirituality from its beginnings. It was supported by Scriptures in the mystical experiences of Moses, the Old Testament Prophets, Paul, and the author of Revelations. The evidence that this Christian mystical tradition influenced the Tarot is complex and will be left for a separate article. The present task is to establish the deep Neoplatonic roots of this orthodox tradition.
Scholars have long agreed on the Neoplatonic basis of Christian mysticism (Von Hugel 1909, Jones 1909, Underhill 1911, Katsaros and Kaplan 1969). Plotinus described the "flight of the alone to the Alone" (Ennead 6, 9:11) and most of the Church Fathers that discussed mysticism were Neoplatonists, e.g., Augustine, Pseudo-Dionysius, Origen, Clement of Alexandria, Basil, Gregory the Great, the Egyptian Desert Fathers. John Climacus (c. 570-649) wrote "The ladder of divine ascent", an obvious reference to the Plotinian ascent through the intermediaries.
Much of Christian monastic spirituality is based on contemplation of the Scriptures. We have seen that Iamblicus and Proclus introduced the idea of hidden mystical meanings underlying symbols and that Origen, Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius applied this idea to scriptural exegesis. Many medieval writers on the Scriptures accepted this personal mystical message as superior to the literal sense. As a result, many orthodox commentators on the Scriptures, including Peter Comestor, Peter the Chanter, and Stephan Langton, were unknowingly promulgating a fundamental Neoplatonic principle that became fundamental to western mysticism. A useful summary of the influence of Neoplatonism on interpretation can be found at:
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/medieval_theory_and_criticism.html
A Neoplatonic, hierarchical mysticism underlay much of medieval theology (Dronke 1988). In the 9th century, Eriugena espoused a thoroughly Neoplatonic mysticism. Eriugena was declared a heretic, but not for his mystical writings, which continued to influence Christian spirituality (Harris 1972). The translation of Greek and Arabic Neoplatonists in the 12th century supplied further fuel (Chenu 1968). Rorem (1993) shows that the Franciscan theologian, Saint Bonaventure (c. 1217-1274) espoused a number of Neoplatonic themes in his writings. His major spiritual work, "The Soul's Journey into God" is clearly Neoplatonic and relies on authorities such as Pseudo-Dionysius and John Climacus. Bonaventure also developed an encyclopedic cosmology that was based on a Neoplatonic hierarchy. Amusingly, he placed the Franciscans near the top, with the Seraphim, and way above the Pope! So perhaps the Tarot Hermit is a Franciscan?
One of the most widely read and influential Christian mystics, Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), incorporated a number of Neoplatonic themes in her writings (Dronke 1992). Hildegard, like many Neoplatonists, was an encyclopedist who wrote on science, cosmology and medicine in addition to mysticism (Thorndike 1923). Interestingly, she accepted the Neoplatonic concept of correspondences between material objects and spiritual intermediaries. As a result, she discussed 'good or natural' magic involving herbs and gems and believed that medicines should be administered under the proper phase of the moon.
It is beyond the scope of this essay to do a thorough survey of Neoplatonism in all of the medieval mystical writers. For the present, it will suffice to mention one other influential Christian mystic, Meister Eckhart (c. 1260-1327). Eckhart was an enthusiastic proponent of the orthodoxy of Neoplatonic mysticism (Thorndike 1923). He, following Peter Abelard, attempted to legitimize the Neoplatonic intermediary, the Anima Mundi or World Soul, by saying it was identical to the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Christian Trinity.
Not all the Christian mystics were philosophers or theologians and were probably unaware, and uninterested, in the Neoplatonic implications of their writings. However, the negative theology of Plotinus is implicit in concepts like the 'cloud of unknowing' and the 'dark night of the soul'. The description of the mystical experience as an ascending journey through a series of intermediary stages is universal and clearly Neoplatonic.
The Influence of Neoplatonism on Western Art and Symbolism</h2>
One of the words that Plato used to describe the supreme being was Beauty. Plotinus developed this idea into a theory of aesthetics (Putnam 1960) that became an integral part of western culture. For the Neoplatonists, beauty is not a matter of symmetry but was an archetype of the supreme One. As an archetype, beauty had a spiritual purpose that was largely unconscious - it attracted and lifted the human soul toward the One, the absolute Beauty that is the quest of the mystical process. Thus, creating and viewing art was an act of de-alienation (Anton 2000). Alienation is a Platonic term to describe what happens to the individual human soul as it is separated from its true home in the world of ideas and is united to a human body. De-alienation was then a semi-magical act in which beauty led the embodied soul to remember and long for its true spiritual home.
The transmittal of the Neoplatonic aesthetics occurred in parallel with Christian philosophy and theology but was not directly dependent on learning. Robb (1935) points out that there was really no need for the artist to a learned man. The main concepts of Neoplatonism were broadly disseminated in scores of lay treatises and hundreds of lyrics. Scholarly debate was not needed to assimilate the hierarchical cosmology, the encyclopedic symbolism, and the spiritual quality of beauty. Similarly, de-alienation was a natural act and one did not have to understand the theory in order to experience the uplifting.
Neoplatonism entered medieval architecture through the Gothic style originated by Abbot Suger of Saint-Denis (Rorem 1993). Suger was a Neoplatonist (Crosby 1987, Crosby et al. 1981) and the architecture style he developed was encyclopedic, hierarchical, symbolic, and cosmic in dimension. All of the great Gothic cathedrals were built on this Neoplatonic aesthetic. Experience of their interiors was a spiritual and uplifting experience. Attending rituals in such a structure harkened back to the cosmic theurgy of Proclus. The cathedral transformed liturgy into an aesthetic mystical experience. This same aesthetic ideal continued into the architecture of 15th century Italy where the Tarot was invented and where great domes represented the intermediate spheres linking God to earth (Cheney and Hendrix 2002). So if the modern Tarotist sees foreshadows of the Tarot symbols in Abbot Suger and the great Gothic cathedrals, their intuition is accurate. However, once again, they are focusing on one of the threads of the wholecloth of Neoplatonism that produced the Tarot.
Plotinus stated that there were three types of humans that were predisposed to undertake the mystical ascent: the philosopher, the musician, and the lover (Anton 2000). We will return to the lover in our discussion of medieval poetry. In the meantime, it is easy to understand why musicians should relate to a Neoplatonic aethetic. The Neoplatonists raised music to the highest level of spiritual endeavor, akin to philosophy in leading to mystical ascent. Indeed, Plato occasionally used a Greek word for music as a synonym for philosophy (Kupke 1992).
The connection between music and mysticism resulted from the Neoplatonic assimilation of the mystical theories of Pythagoras. The musician must constantly deal with the practical aspects of mathematics. To strike a chord, certain string lengths must be established on the lute. When the ratios of string lengths correspond to the mystical ratios of Pythagorus the music is magical and uplifting to rapture. By manipulating the mathematicals that are the intermediates between matter and God, the musician ascends through the spheres in a magical and intuitive way. One need not even understand the mathematical theory in order to experience the mystic ascent. The process is archetypic and allows the musician to participate in the mystical experience even without the negative theology of the learned mystic. An excellent summary of the influence of Neoplatonism on early music theory can be found at:
http://www.musictheoryresources.com/members/MTA_1_2.htm
Eriugena described theology as a "...kind of poetry, by means of fictive imaginations, adapts Holy Scripture to the inquiry of our minds." (Otten 1992). The statement reflects the high regard in which Neoplatonists held creative allegorical poetry and imagery (Dronke 1988). The epic poetry of Virgil was an allegory of the mystical journey and inspired similar efforts in Petrarch and Dante. The poetry that could capture the scope of the Neoplatonic vision would be encyclopedic, incorporating the intermediaries, symbolism, and allegory. Perhaps the finest example of medieval Neoplatonic poetry is the 12th century "Cosmographia" of Bernardus Silvestris (Wetherbee 1973). Here the full range of Neoplatonic cosmology is developed.
Although grandiose epic poetry seemed best adapted to conveying the Neoplatonic vision, Plotinus also pointed out that the lover was one of the human types best suited to the mystical ascent. Plotinus primarily developed a negative mystical theology in which the learned philosopher successively denied attributes to arrive at an "unknowing" of the One. However, Plotinus hints that the final step to total union requires love. This hint was developed by Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius into a theology of union through love. This Christian Neoplatonism had a deep influence on Alain de Lille and Chretien's romances (Wetherbee 1973). Courtly love became a 'Platonic' love that led to spiritual elevation, as seen in Petrarch and Dante. The romance of the Grail legends became a mystic journey and ascent. The aesthetic ideal in lyric and romance poetry accepted the same Neoplatonic ideal as architecture and music. So if the modern interpretor sees hints of the Tarot symbols in the Grail Quests, the insight is probably correct. But the Tarot does not represent a French romance and this is just another thread in the wholecloth of Neoplatonism.
Fine art adopted a Neoplatonic aesthetic just as we found for other arts. Italian churches and public buildings were filled with art that conveyed an encyclopedic view of sacred history, a hierarchical angelology and cosmology, and attempted to lift the soul of the viewer into mystic rapture (Anton 2000). The Church approved this religious art on the grounds that it facilitated teaching dogma to an illiterate audience. Admittedly, medieval art focused monotonously on the life of Christ and seemed to appeal to the emotions rather than evoking a mystical experience. Nevertheless, Augustinian Neoplatonic theory held that the intense love and pity evoked by such images were an integral part of the mystical ascent and medieval saints are often depicted as staring intently at a crucifix.
Beyond this emotive response, the religious icon was also seen to be a manifestation of the divine, with specific correlations in the world of emanations, i.e., a special association with spiritual powers (Koutras 2002). Specific icons were believed to be able to cure the sick or soften the hardened heart. Although orthodox, such beliefs can be seen to be closely related to astral image magic in which a talisman is believed to have special correlation to a planetary intermediary and capable of producing cures or specific physical effects.
Art also incorporated the Neoplatonic concepts of symbols. The mystic significance of symbolism was developed by late Neoplatonists, such as Proclus, and adopted by Augustine to explain mystical layers of meaning in Scripture. This concept of hidden levels of meaning was widely applied to art and poetry. Dante stated explicitly that there were hidden mystical messages in the Divine Comedy (see separate article on Dante and the Tarot). By the 15th century, such hidden meanings were deliberately inserted into works of fine art. A famous example is Botticelli's Primavera (~1478) with deliberate Neoplatonic references that have been careful dissected by scholars (Cheney 1985). The creative descent is illustrated at the right margin. The right center is occupied by an ecstatic dance supervised by Eros, referencing the theology of love. At the right margin we find Mercury (= Hermes) reaching upward for the return to the beyond.
The Influence of Neoplatonism on 14th and 15th Century Italy
The many disparate threads of Neoplatonism were woven together in the northern Italian city-states of the 14th and 15th centuries. Many of the threads can be found in Dante (see separate article on Dante and the Tarot). Dante is strongly Neoplatonic in his cosmology and mysticism (Moore 1900, Gardner 1913, Wicksteed 1913, Robb 1935, Harris 1972). In the Paradisio (28:130-132), Beatrice describes the nine choirs of angels and their association with the nine spheres of heaven (Jacoff 1993). This cosmology is straight from Pseudo-Dionysius' Celestial Hierarchy. It is also clear that Dante describes an individualistic spiritual journey that is taken from the medieval Neoplatonic mystics (Dinsmore 1901). Dante's vision was influential with later Italian poets and artists and was held in the highest regard among Neoplatonist philosophers in the 15th century (Robb 1935).
Dante's influence was important, for example, in Petrarch (1304-1374). Petrarch authored an epic poem 'I Trionfi' which has been offered as a model for the Tarot symbols (Moakley 1966). Petrarch is usually thought of as a humanist, enamoured of ancient Roman and Greek culture. However, he was also an early critic of aristoteleanism and in the Triumph of Fame he gives the first place to Plato (Kristeller 1964). Like most humanists, Petrarch was influenced by the latin Neoplatonic writers (Kupke 1992) such as Macrobius (Commentary on Cicero's Dream of Scipio), Martinus Capella (Marriage of Philosophy and Mercury), and Boethius (Consolations of Philosophy). The simple fact is that humanism had a strong element of Neoplatonism. Fulgentius' Mythologiae firmly establishes humanism into a Neoplatonic framework (Kupke 1992). Admittedly, Petrarch was not a systematic thinker but the Neoplatonic mystical journey is evident in his work and he often cites Augustine and the Latin Neoplatonists (Robb 1935). So insofar as Petrarch is seen as the source of the Tarot symbols, he is simply another thread in the wholecloth of Neoplatonism.
The Neoplatonism implicit in Dante and Petrarch became explicit in Luigi Marsigli and Coluccio Salutari. These late 14th and early 15th century Neoplatonists largely relied on the Latin writers, such as Boethius. However, after the sojourn of Manuel Chrysoloras to Venice and Florence (1394-1399) a number of Platonic and Neoplatonic manuscripts were collected (Robb 1935). Marsigli, an Augustinian monk, met with friends for discussions in the cloister of Santo Spiritu in Florence. Marsigli's 'Academy' was continued by Ambrogio Traversari and Carlo Marsuppini. Similar 'Academies' were formed by Pomponio Leto in Rome, Pontano in Naples and Ficino in Florence.
The Neoplatonic revival in Italy was given a solid boost by the Council of Florence (1438-1439). This Council attempted to reunite the eastern and western churches and brought to Italy the flowers of Greek scholarship: Plethro, Bessarion, Isidore of Salonika, possibly Theodore Gaza. These scholars brought a number of Greek philosophic manuscripts and ignited further interest in Neoplatonism. The Council continued until 1445, moving to Florence and then to Rome. However, it is important to recognize that even prior to the Council Italy already possessed a solid foundation of Greek culture, a fair stock of manuscripts and translations and a number of informal societies intent on discussing and developing these ideas (Robb 1935). So the Greek scholars stimulated, rather than originated, the Italian tradition in Neoplatonism. Indeed, Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) was a catholic prelate and Neoplatonist and proclaimed Pseudo-Dionysius the great of theologians.
The flowering of Renaissance Neoplatonism occurred with Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) and his Neoplatonic Academy in Florence (Kristeller 1943). Ficino (1975, 1978) was an ordained priest and his academy was more than just an intellectual center. It was a spiritual community that incorporated mysticism and the gradual ascent to God through the Neoplatonic emanations (Kristeller 1964). True to the Neoplatonic spirit, Ficino attempted a grand syncretism that reconciled all knowledge and condensed it into one paradigm (Robb 1935). Thus, Ficino's synthesis also included astrology, magic and the occult (Peters 1978, Cheney and Hendrix 2002). Ficino's disciple, Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), continued the syncretism. Pico studied under Jewish Averroist Elia del Medigo and incorporated a Christian Cabala, another flavor of Neoplatonism (Kristeller 1964).
At this point, it may be helpful to consider an infamous Neoplatonic symbolic system of the early 15th century. The Tempio Malastestiano was built in Rimini by Sisismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (1419-1468). The temple is not useful as a model for early tarot but provides an example of another Neoplatonic symbolic system of the same period (Godwin 2002). The importance of the temple is that it incorporates symbols from a variety of sources into a synthesized and esoteric spiritual system. The result is a syncretized symbolic system that appears to have the same Neoplatonic underpinnings as the early Tarot.
The temple was formed by enclosing an old church and dividing it into 8 chapels. The overall system appears to correspond to the descriptions in the "Cave of the Nymphs" by the Neoplatonist Porphyry (Shapiro 1958). The first chapel contains the seven virtues, with Justice given the highest place. The second to fourth chapels contain the Sibyls, saints and old testament figures. The fifth introduces Phythagorean music theory with putti playing instruments. The sixth contains putti symbolizing the three classes of airy spirits from Augustine (City of God 7:6) and representing the next stage in the ascent of the soul. The seventh contains the planets and zodiac. The final chapel contains the 8 muses, 7 liberal arts, Prosperine (harvester of souls) and Apollo. Godwin (2002) considers the temple as the supreme monument to an early enthusiasm for the Neoplatonists, fully two decades before Ficino. Malatesta exhumed the bones of Plethon, the Greek Neoplatonist, and placed them in the temple/church.
The sycretism that occurred in the northern city-states of 15th century Italy must have seemed both flabbergasting and elating. Wisdom converging from all sides seemed compatible and seemed to fit together so nicely. Wisdom as disparate as Latin classics, Greek philosophy, epic poetry, Gothic architecture, Islamic philosophy and astrology and Sufi mysticism, Jewish Cabala, Provencal Quest poetry, Christian mysticism - they all seemed to bespeak a common message. Surely there must be only one truth! Imagine how incredible it must have seemed when Pletho and the Byzantines arrived in Italy carrying the same message! From our modern perspective we can see why all these disparate sources of wisdom seemed ripe for synthesis: they were all branches of the same Neoplatonic roots. It comes as no surprise therefore, that the Renaissance syncretism flowered in the Neoplatonism of Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola. The Renaissance discovered the synthetic Royal Flush - but the deck had been stacked way back in the Alexandria and Athens of the first centuries of the Common Era.
The Neoplatonic Concepts in the Tarot
Our survey of Neoplatonism and its influence on early 15th century Italy indicates that Neoplatonism forms the core philosophical system underlying the early Tarot symbols. The symbols form a hierarchical system essential to the Tarot game in which 'higher' cards defeat 'lower' cards. We have seen that the western concept of hierarchy derives from Plotinus' concept of emanations. The concept of emanations led to a concept of the structure of the spiritual world (Armstrong 1940) and even the physical cosmos corresponded to this hierarchical system (Harris 1982). A summary of the influence of Neoplatonism on astronomy can be found at:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/gregory/215/handouts/h05_nra.doc
The hierarchical structure of the Tarot symbol means that a number was assigned to each card. We have seen that Plotinus and the early Neoplatonists assimilated Pythagorean number theory by identifying the infinite being as the "One" and the emanations as mathematicals. So any number symbolism applied to the Tarot is easily explained by its Neoplatonic foundations.
The highest emanation in the Neoplatonic system is the Anima Mundi, i.e., the Spirit of the World. The highest Tarot symbol is the "World" card and resembles medieval representations of the Anima Mundi. Although this representation is not found among the oldest extant Tarot cards (see articles on the Iconology of the early World cards), its presence on the Tarot de Marseille indicates that the Neoplatonic foundations of the symbols were recognized early in its evolution.
The Tarot symbols represent a broad synthetic view of the world and human life. We have seen that the Neoplatonists were encyclopedists (Wetherbee 1973). Beginning with the Latin Neoplatonists such as Calcidius, Macrobius, Capella, Boethius, and reinforced by Eriugena and the Chartres school, such syncretism became identified with the Neoplatonic worldview. Thorndike (1929) shows that this encyclopedism began in the 13th century with 'De natura rerum' of Thomas of Cantimpre, "De proprietatibus rerum" of Bartholomew of England, and "Speculum naturale" by Vincent of Beauvais. The Neoplatonic trend continued into the 14th and 15th centuries with the "Repertorium" of Petrus Berchorius, "Dittamondo" of Fazio degli Uberti, "Fons memorabilium universi" of Dominico Bandini and "De rebus expetendis et fugiendis" of George Valla. This Neoplatonic syncretism also influence the art of the times. The more comprehensive the vision, the greater the art (Anton 2000). We find this in the epic poetry of Dante and Petrarch and the comprehensive art of Giotto and di Vinci.
In the Neoplatonic vision, comprehensive symbolic systems also had an occult mystical signficance (Edman 1925). At one level, the art or symbols had an uplifting function, drawing the soul upward toward its true goal. But beginning with Iamblicus and Proclus and continuing with Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius, symbols also had a deeper mystical significance. Plotinus discussed the use of images by a spiritual director (Schroeder 2002). By the presentation and withdrawal of images, the director leads his disciples from their engagement with sense, discursive reason, and passion to the fathomless beauty of the supernatural world. So the concept that the Tarot symbols have a second and even a third level of interpretation seems to have a solid foundation in the culture and Neoplatonic worldview within which they were created.
The early Neoplatonists assimilated the Gnostic and Mystery religions by developing the magical and religious aspects of the system. This synthesis is evident in late Hellenistic culture. The Greek magic papyruses (Betz 1986) contain elements from many religious systems and show the early association of magic with Neoplatonism. The system is deeply individualistic and contains a strong sense that nature is penetrated by spiritual force (Robb 1935). Augustine establishes the legitimacy of angels by referring to the theory of daemons, the powers of the upper heavens and identified with the stars and heavenly bodies. Thus, angels and demons have the same nature, a more purified form of pneuma or spirit. This pneuma is the glue pervading the universe (Couliano 1987). This concept underlies the theory of western magic and accounts for the connections between human events and the stars and planets. It explains image magic in which carefully chosen physical objects can draw down beneficial (or harmful) spiritual influences. So if one sees magical associations in the early Tarot cards, that viewpoint is supported by the Neoplatonic system underlying the symbols.
There is one specific mystery associated with the early Tarot symbols that is easily explained by their Neoplatonic roots: the absence of a Prudence symbol while the other three moral virtues are represented. We have discussed elsewhere (see the chapter on the iconology of the three virtues) that Iamblicus' life of Pythagoras indicates that the human soul has three levels ruled by Temperance, Fortitude, and Justice - in that hierarchical order. This is precisely the order found in the Type B ordering which is used in the Iconology chapters as having the best credentials as the earliest ordering of the Tarot symbols. The system of three virtues become a Neoplatonic tradition and the medieval Neoplatonic theologician, Peter Abelard, maintained that Prudence was not a virtue and that the other three were ruled by Justice (Marenbon 1992).
The Neoplatonic roots of the Tarot symbols explain the variety of theories that have been offered by interpretors. The early Tarot resembles the symbols in Petrarch's 'I Trionfi' because Petrarch followed Dante in framing his epic in a Neoplatonic worldview. Petrarch's poem isn't the model for the Tarot, but it is a parallel Neoplatonic system and naturally shows resemblances. Similarly, the Tarot has been thought to originate with the Grail legends because they are also Neoplatonic. Ramon Llull and Nicholas of Cusa have been thought of as originators because their Neoplatonism parallels what can be seen in the Tarot symbols. The same is true of theories involving Abbot Suger of St. Denis and the Abbey of St. Victor in Marseilles. These are not the points of origin of the Tarot but one would expect to see Neoplatonic symbolism in these places that parallels the later Tarot. Interpretors have seen elements of Gnosticism, the Mystery Religions, Buddhism and other eastern philosophies in the Tarot. These elements can be seen because they were assimilated into Neoplatonism at its earliest stages of development in Alexandria. Other interpretors see QBLH and Sufism as the points of origin. The early Tarot is a Christian Neoplatonic system that would obviously show strong resemblances to the Judaic and Islamic versions of medieval Neoplatonism. There is also good reason to believe that Pythagorean mathematics, astrology, and magic can be found in the early Tarot since these were integral parts in the Neoplatonic worldview. It appears that many of these theories contain elements of the truth but focused on individual threads that were woven into the syncretistic wholecloth of Neoplatonism.
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